Explanation:The facial feedback hypothesis proposes that facial expression influences emotional experience. Smiling activates neural pathways associated with positive affect, reducing stress responses—even when the smile is deliberate rather than spontaneous …
Explanation:Even brief physical activity increases dopamine, serotonin, and endorphins, which improve affect and reduce stress. Light outdoor exercise also enhances attention restoration and emotion regulation (Ekkekakis & Backhouse, 2009). Example:A …
Explanation:Multitasking forces rapid switching between tasks, increasing cognitive load. Rubinstein et al. (2001) found that each switch incurs “switch costs,” reducing accuracy and speed. Chronic multitasking is linked to decreased …
Explanation:Research using neuroimaging shows that social rejection activates the anterior cingulate cortex—the same region involved in physical pain processing. This suggests the brain treats threats to social belonging similarly to …
Explanation:Ainsworth’s (1978) Strange Situation is a structured observational procedure categorizing infant–caregiver attachment as secure, avoidant, or ambivalent. The child’s behavior during separations and reunions with the caregiver indicates attachment quality.Her …
Explanation:Gordon Allport (1897–1967) emphasized personality as a dynamic system of traits unique to each individual, moving psychology away from psychoanalytic determinism. He distinguished cardinal, central, and secondary traits and stressed that personality is shaped …
Explanation:Anna Freud (1895–1982), daughter of Sigmund Freud, expanded psychoanalysis to child development. She proposed defense mechanisms—strategies used by the ego to manage anxiety—and explored how early experiences shape personality.Her work …
Explanation:Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936), originally a physiologist, discovered classical conditioning while studying digestion in dogs. He found that neutral stimuli (bells) paired repeatedly with unconditioned stimuli (food) eventually produced conditioned responses …
Explanation:Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930) was a trailblazer in early American psychology. Despite completing all doctoral requirements at Harvard, she was denied a PhD due to her gender. Her contributions include …
Explanation:Central to Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is the recognition that thoughts influence emotions and behaviors. Negative self‑talk often reflects cognitive distortions—overgeneralization, catastrophizing, labeling—which sustain emotional distress. Beck (2011) describes cognitive …